Reasons for German
Immigration to the United States:
The Protestant Reformation ignited by Martin Luther opened the door for many
others to express their dissatisfaction with the Roman Catholic Church in
Sixteenth Century Germany. The expression was not simply a verbal argument;
the Protestant princes mustered armies among their followers, and responded
to Catholic edicts with violence. The fact that Church lands were
confiscated by force was distressing to the Catholic leaders. Charles V,
King of Germany at the time of the Protestant Reformation, attempted to
settle the religious quarrel between the Protestants and Catholics by
discussion and arbitration. When that effort failed, he resorted to force in
the attempt to crush the Protestant armies. The Lutheran Princes joined in
an alliance with the French king, Henry II, who was promised the border
cities of Metz, Toul and Verdun if he supplied French aid to their cause.
Charles realized what a war with France would entail, and offered a
compromise.The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 promised to
the territorial princes the right to decide whether Catholicism or
Lutheranism would be admitted within their respective realms. If the common
man within a particular territory disagreed with the faith that the prince
of that territory chose, he would be permitted to emigrate with his family
to another territory. A second provision was that only Lutheranism, of the
various Protestant sects, would be permitted in opposition to Catholicism.
Lands which were in Lutheran possession at the time of the Treaty of Passau
(1552) would remain under such ownership, but thereafter, if a Catholic
bishop or other ecclesiastical leader were to convert to Lutheranism, he
would have to forfeit his lands and property.
The Peace of Augsburg was flawed and, in
part, served as a cause of the Thirty Years War that would erupt in 1618. It
was difficult to enforce the provisions. On the one hand, the provision
calling for the forfeiture of property was openly violated and flaunted.
Catholic princes of territories throughout Germany professed a conversion to
Lutheranism, but converted the Church properties within their realms into
private holdings. On the other hand, the Peace of Augsburg recognized only
Lutheranism as a valid Protestant sect. The Calvinists, Anabaptists and
others resented being excluded from the Peace of Augsburg's provisions. It
was because of the latter problem that the Protestant Union was formed. The
Union was led by a Calvinist prince by the name of Frederick, the Elector
Palatine of the Rhine.
The ambitions of Emperor Matthias, the
Habsburg king of Austria posed a threat to both, the Protestants and the
Catholics. But the Catholic princes formed a League, led by Maximilian of
Bavaria, to counter the Protestant Union. The Catholic League decided to
support the Habsburg king, who professed his devout Catholic faith. Matthias
was childless, and his choice for successor was Ferdinand of Styria, who was
likewise loyal to Catholicism. The choice of Ferdinand was accepted in
Austria and most of the other regions that fell under the direct control of
the Habsburg king. But in Bohemia, the predominantly Calvinist noblemen
staged a protest against another Catholic king over their territories. They
declared the dethronement of the Habsburg dynasty and then proclaimed the
election of Frederick, the Elector Palatine of the Rhine as their new king.
King Ferdinand responded to the
Bohemian challenge by enlisting the aid of a Spanish army to invade the
Palatinate region of Germany, and with Maximilian of Bavaria to invade
Bohemia with his own army. The Catholic forces were victorious in this
initial foray. From that point the war escalated into an international
conflict. The Spanish king, Philip IV saw his success in destroying the
Palatinate as simply a stepping stone to retaking possession of Holland. The
invasion of Holland by the Spanish brought England and France into the
conflict on the behalf of Holland. The war even spread across the Atlantic
Ocean to Brazil in South America. King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway,
the Duke of Holstein, and as such a member of the Holy Roman Empire, invaded
Germany in an effort to overthrow the Habsburg dynasty. The predominantly
Lutheran nation of Sweden joined in the war as an ally of the Protestant
Union, it is said, because she feared in Germany fell to the Papists, Sweden
would be next.
The Thirty Years War was finally brought to
a conclusion with the Treaty of Westphalia, which was signed on 24 October,
1648. The terms of the treaty included the extension of the same rights to
the Calvinists as those that had been extended to the Lutherans in the Peace
of Augsburg. The Upper Palatinate was ceded to Bavaria. The Lower Palatinate
was restored to the eldest son of Frederick, the Elector of the Palatinate
of the Rhine. Western Pomerania, including Bremen and Verden, was ceded to
Sweden. Brandenburg received the bishoprics of Camin, Halberstadt, Minden
and a large portion of Magdeburg. France obtained the Alsace, with the
exception of Strasburg; she also retained possessionof Metz, Toul and
Verdun. The United Provinces of the Netherlands (i.e. Holland) and
Switzerland received their independence from the Empire.
The results of the Thirty Years War, in
spite of the devastation wrought on Germany included a certain amount of
religious freedom and the emergence of "modern" statehood in Europe. In the
end, not all of the Protestant sects were granted equal liberty; only
Lutheranism and Calvinism were afforded legal status alongside Catholicism.
But since it was the Calvinists who instigated the conflict, they were
satisfied with the settlement. Of importance to the Protestant Union was the
curtailment of the Habsburg dominance in Germany. The prestige of the Holy
Roman Empire was shattered as a result of the war, and as a result, it
emerged as simply one of the many "sovereign states" of Europe.
The Germany of the 1700s consisted of
nearly three hundred territories, duchies, city-states and cantons linked
together by language, custom and their common Germanic ethnicity. The
Electoral Palatinate (i.e. the Kurpfalz) was one of the larger
territories. It encompassed the region on both sides of the Rhine River and
it tributaries, the Main and Neckar Rivers. At the present time the
Rheinland-Pfalz is known as the Palatinate, and it lies entirely on the west
side of the Rhine. The region to the east of the Rhine, the Neckar Valley,
is now known as Baden-Wurttemberg. The German emigrants of the 1700s came
primarily from the Palatinate territories located along the Rhine River
(i.e. in the southern part of western Germany and the northern part of
Switzerland). The greatest number of emigrants came from the
Duchies/districts of Zweibrucken, Darmstadt, Hesse-Darmstadt, Hanau,
Franconia, Spires, Worms, Nassau, Alsace, Baden and Wurttemberg and the
Archbishoprics of Treves and Mayence. The region lying to the east of the
Rhine and south of the Neckar, between the Schwarzwald (i.e. the
Black Forest) and the Odenwald (i.e. Oden Forest) was known during
the Middle Ages as the Kraichgau, and from that region came a large number
of emigrants.
The Peace of Augsburg of 1555 gave the
sovereign over a village or territory the privilege of choosing the
religious preference for the people who resided there. The majority of the
Palatinate became Lutheran in 1556, but the villages governed by the
Bishopric of Speyer remained Catholic. By the 1560s the Reformed Church had
come to the Palatinate; it supplanted Lutheranism as the dominant faith.
Then, during the Thirty Years War, Catholicism once more became the
predominant faith in the Palatinate. In 1705 the "Palatine Church Division"
was effected. The terms of the "Division" included a ruling that 5/7ths of
the parishes in the Palatinate were to be Reformed; 2/7ths were to be
Catholic; none were to be Lutheran.
Religious persecution is the reason often
cited for the emigration of thousands of Germans. That idea seems to simply
be a misinterpretation of the "religious persecution" reason for the
emigration of British subjects hoping to avoid the Church of England. In
terms of the German and Swiss emigrants, religious persecution was only one
small aspect of the grand migration. In fact, it might be argued that it was
more difficult for Germans and Swiss to obtain permission to emigrate on
grounds of religious persecution than any other.
In 1688 King Louis XIV of France sent a
large army into the Palatinate to take it into the possession of France. Two
years earlier King Leopold I, the Holy Roman Emperor entered into an
alliance with a number of German princes, and the kings of Holland, Sweden
and Spain to preserve the Holy Roman Empire against a possible French
attack. Ties between the royal families of Holland and England induced
England to join the League of Augsburg. The League of Augsburg was therefore
ready to meet Louis' army when it arrived in the Rhine Valley in 1688. The
War of the League of Augsburg lasted for roughly seven years from 1689 to
1697. It spread to the North American Continent where it became known as
King William's War.
The War of the Spanish Succession was felt
in the Palatinate when, in 1707, a French army under Marshal Villars crossed
the Rhine and plundered throughout the region which is today southwestern
Germany.
The hardships wrought by the Thirty Years’
War and then the subsequent War of the League of Augsburg, along with
certain natural causes figured more prominently than religious persecution
as causative factors of the migration of Germans and Swiss to America. John
Duncan Brite in his dissertation, The Attitude Of European States Toward
Emigration To The American Colonies, 1607-1820, noted that there were a
series of crop failures throughout the territories occupied by Wurttemberg
and Pfalz-Rhineland. Hardest hit were the fruit orchards and vinyards, due
to the extreme cold of the winter of 1708/1709. Devastatingly cold weather
hit Germany and the rest of western Europe. Extreme cold set in as early as
October. By November, 1708 it was said that firewood would not burn in the
open air and that alcohol froze. The rivers, including the swift flowing
Rhone, became covered with ice that permitted carts to be driven across
them. At about the same time, restrictions were placed on grazing and wood
gathering in the ducal forests of the Palatinate. Increased taxes added to
the hardships of survival faced by the working classes.
The greatest motivation for the mass
emigration of Palatines appears not to have been religious persecution, war
devastation, crop failures or even taxes. Enticement was probably the
greatest encouragement for the emigration of the majority of the Germans and
Swiss. That enticement came from two sources: 1.) propaganda spread
by Neulanders, and 2.) letters from prior emigrants.
William Penn was given a grant of land by
King Charles II of England in 1681 as payment of a loan made by William's
father. Charles probably found it beneficial to get rid of Penn because he
was a loud exponent of his Quaker faith. That faith, among a few others,
threatened the power of the Church of England. By granting Penn the land in
the New World, Charles would succeed in repaying the debt (without spending
money which his government budget could not easily afford). Also, it would
remove the bothersome Quaker group from his country. It would be assumed
that the Quakers found the deal to be most satisfactory because they simply
wanted to be able to practice their religious beliefs as they wished; their
intentions had not been to provoke the troubles that they found themselves
constantly in.
The British government expected the
proprietors of colonies in the New World to populate those colonies in order
to confirm the British claims to the land. William Penn, therefore, set
about publicizing the plans for his "Holy Experiment". It would be a
self-governing state with the separation of Church and State an integral
part of the government's foundation. William Penn called for any and all
interested persons to make the trip across the ocean to settle in his
granted lands. A pamphlet was printed in England and distributed throughout
the Palatine. Titled: Some account of the Province of Pennsylvania in
America, the pamphlet published William Penn's offer to sell one hundred
acres of land in exchange for £2. Penn's pamphlet also offered equal rights
to all persons regardless of religion or race. Various other books and
pamphlets were published and distributed throughout the Rhine valley during
the next two decades, including Daniel Falckner's Curieuse Nachricht von
Pennsylvania (i.e. Curious News From Pennsylvania).
Records do not reveal any mass migrations
as a direct result of Penn's pamphlet campaign in Germany, but some families
did take him up on the promise of a better life in the New World. Although
the first major emigration of Germans would not occur until 1709, the names
of sixty-four German men, heads of their households, were included on a
listing made in 1691 of the residents of German Town in Pennsylvania.
The earliest emigration of Germans and
Swiss from their homelands to the New World was that of a party led by
Francis Daniel Pastorius in the year 1683. Enticed by William Penn's
invitation to his province, the party settled near the young town of
Philadelphia. The German settlement was appropriately named "Germantown".
Twenty-five years would pass between the
emigration of the Pastorius party and the next significant mass departure.
In 1708 the Reverend Joshua Kocherthal assembled a party of forty-one adults
and their children and prepared to emigrate to the Carolinas; they had been
enticed by the advertisements published by the proprietary governor of the
Carolina colony. In order to settle in any of the British colonies,
Kocherthal had to submit a request to Queen Anne. The party traveled to
London in the Spring of 1708 to secure the royal permission and was
confronted by the usual governmental red-tape. Reverend Kocherthal had to
provide a justification for the emigration; the reason given was the French
ravages in the Rhine and Neckar Valleys in 1707. The Germans' petition was
submitted to the Board of Trade. The Board of Trade suggested that the
Germans should be settled in Antigua. Upon the opinion that the Palatines
would not be suited to the hot climate of the West Indies it was then
suggested that they be directed to the Hudson River Valley of the Province
of New York. The Germans would therefore be available to assist the English
on the frontier against the French and the Indians.
By the time that the Germans actually
embarked for the New World in October, the original party of forty-one had
been increased by the addition of fourteen more emigrants. One family had to
remain behind because of the mother's illness. En route, two children were
born.
The Kocherthal party arrived at Long Island
on 18 December, 1708. They were granted lands along the west side of the
Hudson River about fifty-five miles north of New York City. Their settlement
developed into the town of Newburgh. Almost from the start, the Germans
suffered from want of provisions. A proposed naval stores industry, by which
the Germans would be gainfully employed, never materialized. The Reverend
Kocherthal returned to England to petition the Queen for additional monetary
assistance. He hoped to raise the funds necessary to establish vinyards in
the new settlement. Although not able to raise the exact amount that he
hoped for, the Reverend Kocherthal succeeded in obtaining some funds, and
the Newburgh settlement survived and flourished. The success of the Newburgh
settlement is important to the history of German emigration because it paved
a favorable path through the English government for subsequent emigrants. If
the settlement had failed, the English might not have been so eager to
provide assistance to future German settlement schemes.
Other German families were excited by the
news of the success of the Newburgh Palatines, as Kocherthal's party of
emigrants became known. They were also enticed by the suggestion made by
Kocherthal in the third edition of his pamphlet, Aussfuhrlich und
umstandlicher Bericht von der beruhmten Landschafft Carolina, that
because the English government had provided their party with monetary
assistance, perhaps it would likewise provide for other emigrants.
German and Swiss families from the Rhine
and Neckar Valleys began to pack up their belongings and traveled north
toward the the ports of the Netherlands. A dispatch from James Dayrolle, the
British Resident at the Hague, dated 24 December, 1708 included a letter
from an unknown person which stated that:
"There arrived in this place a number
of Protestant families, traveling to England in order to go to the
English colonies in America. There are now in the neighborhood of
Rotterdam almost eight or nine hundred of them, having difficulty with
the packet boat and convoys."
Although the letter exaggerated the number
of emigrants (i.e. the number would not reach nine hundred until some
three months later), it was prophetic. During 1709 approximately 13,500
German and Swiss emigrants would apply for passage to the English colonies.
Troops were being ferried on transport
ships from England to the Low Countries to fight against the French in the
War of the Spanish Succession. Dayrolle negotiated with the Duke of
Marlborough to allow the Palatines to be conveyed to England on the return
trip of the transport ships. Eight hundred and fifty-two Germans were
carried to London in April, 1709. Shortly thereafter, word was received in
Rotterdam that the Elector Palatine had issued an edict forbidding the
German emigrants from leaving their homeland. A number of persons were
imprisoned after they were captured making their way down the Rhine. But the
edict and the show of force did little to deter the mass exodus of the
Palatines. They traveled by land toward the seaports of the Netherlands.
Queen Anne, through the intercession of the
Duke of Marlborough, had agreed to allow the nine hundred or so emigrants to
be transported to England. The English government even paid for the
transport of the refugees from Rotterdam. In May, when an additional two
thousand had arrived at Rotterdam, Dayrolle again requested Marlborough's
intercession on their behalf. A second transport was agreed to. But as the
German emigrants continued to arrive in Rotterdam, the English hospitality
began to strain and break down. The English Secretary of State, Henry Boyle,
wrote to Dayrolle on the 24th of June instructing him to send
over to London only those Palatines who were then actually in the
Netherlands. All others on their way were to be turned back. Dayrolle had
advertisements published in the Gazette of Cologne warning that no more
Palatines would be given passage to England. The hospitality of the Dutch
authorities at Rotterdam was also becoming very strained. They appealed for
help from the States General at the Hague. The Dutch ministers at Cologne
and Frankfurt were informed to do what they could to stop the flow of
emigrants. All the efforts by the English and Dutch authorities were to no
avail; the proprietors of the Carolinas had sent over pamphlets and
circulars titled: Propositions of the Lord Proprietors of Carolina to
encourage the Transporting of Palatines to the Province of Caroline. The
missives promised, among other things, one hundred acres of land for every
man, woman and child, free of quit-rent for ten years. The Palatines,
enticed by the promise of a better life in the American colonies, poured
like a giant wave toward the Netherlands and England.
Thirteen thousand and five hundred
Palatines arrived in London between May and October, but the authorities
there sent back 2,257 because they were Roman Catholic. The emigrants were
initially given shelter throughout London under the assumption that they
would soon embark for the American colonies. But arrangements for such a
large number had not been made, and the temporary lodging became an extended
encampment. As the days and weeks wore on, the patience of the English
people wore out. The Palatine encampments were attacked on more than one
occasion by mobs of armed Englishmen.
Until such time that a plan could be
devised to handle the logistics of transporting the thousands of German and
Swiss emigrants across the Atlantic Ocean, short range plans were discussed
to settle them in the British Isles. The plans included settlement of the
emigrants in Wales where they could be put to work in the silver and copper
mines. Of the various proposals considered by the English authorities, one
that was finally agreed upon was proposed by the Council of Ireland. The
Council hoped that the settlement of the Palatines there would strengthen
the Protestant presence in the largely Catholic island. Over three thousand
Palatines made new homes in Ireland between September, 1709 and January,
1710.
Despite troubles with the Irish Catholics
who were understandably upset about the colonization of their homeland, the
Palatines flourished in their new settlements. Over time they intermarried
with their Irish neighbors to the extent that their "Germanic" origins were
nearly forgotten.
In July, 1709 the Lords Proprietors of
Carolina submitted their proposal to the English Board of Trade for the
settlement of "all the Palatines here from 15 years to 45 years old". At
about the same time, two enterprising former citizens of Bern,
Switzerland, Franz Louis Michel and Christopher von Graffenried,
developed a plan to establish a settlement of Swiss Anabaptist
Protestants (i.e. Mennonites) in the New World. They originally
thought to set up their settlement in Virginia, but later chose the
Carolinas.
On 04 August, 1709 Graffenried paid £50 to the Proprietors of Carolina for 5,000 acres of
land. Then, on the 3rd of September, the Proprietors granted
to Graffenried 10,000 acres. The settlement would be named New Bern, in
honor of Graffenried and Michel's home town.
Michel and Graffenied
were permitted to choose 600 Palatines to populate their settlement in
Carolina. They, of course, chose healthy, industrious and skilled men
and their families. The group, consisting of roughly ninety-two families
embarked for the New World in January, 1710. The trip was a rough one
and the ships carrying the emigrants was blown off course. They arrived
in Virginia thirteen weeks after they had started on their voyage. From
there they traveled southward into what is today North Carolina and
established a settlement on the Neuse and Trent Rivers.
A group of Swiss
families who had arranged with Michel and Graffenried to join the New
Bern emigrants left their homes in Bern, Switzerland on 08 March, 1710.
Certain of the men in that group were being deported by the Swiss
government for their Anabaptist beliefs. When they reached the
Netherlands, the Dutch authorities intervened on their behalf and they
gained their "freedom" from having to emigrate. The Swiss party arrived
on the shore of Virginia on 11 September, 1710. From there they made
their way to join the German emigrants in North Carolina.
The new settlement was
in a poor and miserable condition when Graffenried first visited it. The
new settlers had not received supplies originally promised by the Lords
Proprietors of Carolina. Graffenried used his own resources to obtain
supplies from Virginia and Pennsylvania. He then set about laying out a
town plat in the form of a cross with wide streets and spacious lots.
Within eighteen months the town of New Bern was prospering. Apart from
an Indian attack in 1711, in which many houses were ransacked and
burned, and seventy of the Palatines/Swiss settlers were killed, the
settlement was a success.
The Livingston Manor
Settlement in New York is generally more well known than the New Bern
Settlement. It was born out of a trade war between England and Sweden.
Sweden had, in the late-1600s, become England's primary source of naval
stores (i.e. tar and pitch for use in ship building). The
situation was aggravated when the Swedes increased their prices and
England went in search of other sources. She found those sources in
Russia, Denmark and Norway. The Northern War between Sweden and Russia
between 1700 and 1721 strained the English~Russian trade agreement. Then
the Swedish Tar Company (variously known as the Stockholm Tar Company)
lowered its prices for naval stores to other countries such as France,
but refused to lower them for England. The dispute continued to simmer
and boil till finally England looked to the American colonies for its
naval stores.
As early as 1691, the
possibility of obtaining her much needed naval stores in the wilderness
of the New World had been explored by England. Edward Randolph, Surveyor
General in America, had written favorably of the resources to be found
in America, including pitch, tar, rosin, hemp and especially the tall
straight virgin trees that could supply mast timber for England's ships.
In 1696 the Navy Board sent three men as a commission to investigate the
possibility of establishing a naval stores industry in the colonies and
also to instruct the inhabitants on the making of pitch and tar. Their
recommendations included the suggestion that "a sufficient number of
poor families" be sent over to
"attend the service in the woods at a
reasonable rate."
Certain schemes for
the settlement of "poor families" had been suggested prior to the
arrival of the Palatines in 1708. They included a scheme proposed in
February of 1705 to transport a colony of Scotsmen to be settled near
the border of Canada on the Hudson River. For whatever reason, the most
of these schemes were never brought to fruition. Then the Reverend Kocherthal appeared in London requesting assistance from the English
government to transport his party of some-fifty-five Palatines to the
New World.
When the flood of
Palatines and Swiss emigrants poured into England in 1709 and 1710,
discussion were held by the Board of Trade in regard to where they
should be settled in the New World. Of course the subject of the
manufacture of the naval stores and the favorable outcome of the
settlement of the Kocherthal party the previous year entered into the
discussions. The discussions leaned toward establishing the settlement
on the Kenebeck River in New England because of the favorable resources
found there for the manufacture of the naval stores. Colonel Robert
Hunter, who had recently been appointed to the governorship of the
Province of New York submitted his own proposal for the settlement of
Palatines in the frontiers of his province. His arguments were
persuasive. A proposal was submitted by the Board of Trade to the Queen,
and she approved it in early January, 1710.
A Commission For
Collecting For And Settling Of The Palatines had been established
and set about accumulating the funds necessary to pay for ships to carry
the Palatines to America. Henry Bendysh, the secretary to the
Commissioners, arranged with the owners of ten ships to pay £5 ƒ10 per
head for 3,300 Palatines. (The passage of the Palatines to North
Carolina had been arranged at £10 a head.) The total would amount to
between 18,000 and 19,000 pounds sterling.
The Germans were
scheduled to be boarded upon the ships between the 25th and
29th of December, 1709. The boarding took place as scheduled,
but the convoy got no farther than Nore, fifty miles from London, when
seven of the ten ships refused sailing orders. The actual date on which
the ships set sail across the Atlantic is confused because of the
differing accounts that have come down to us. Johann Conrad Weiser, one
of the emigrants, noted in his diary that the convoy of ships left
England "about Christmas Day". Other accounts gave the end of
January and March as the dates for embarkation. The London Gazette
reported on 07 April, 1710, that the ten ships carrying the Palatines
were "ready" to sail from Portsmouth. James DuPre, commissary for
Colonel Hunter, stated in his report that the Palatines were embarked in
December, 1709, but did not actually set sail until 10 April, 1710.
Whether lying in port
on the Thames, or on the Atlantic Ocean, the Palatines were on board the
ships, in conditions suited to the low rate which had been paid the
ships owners, for nearly six months. The conditions were harsh and
uncomfortable. Following the voyage a surgeon requested reimbursement
for medicines he had dispensed enroute, noting that on the ship he
sailed, there were 330 persons sick.
Landfall was made at
New York on 13 June, 1710. The first ship to arrive was the Lyon.
The rest arrived between that date and 02 August. One ship, the
Herbert, was wrecked off the coast of Long Island on 07 July. The
death toll on the journey amounted to 446 by the end of July, and during
the first month in the New World, that number rose to 470. To augment
the numbers, women gave birth to thirty babies during the journey. The
ships docked at, and the Palatines and Swiss emigrants disembarked on
Nutten Island. Due to the reports of disease among the emigrants, the
people of New York City showed no hospitality toward them.
Four tracts of land
had been suggested as the eventual site for the Palatine settlement.
They were all part of what was known as the "Extravagant Grants". The
Extravagant Grants were lands which had been claimed by the late
governor, Colonel Benjamin Fletcher, but whose ownership to which the
New York Assembly disputed. On 02 March, 1699 the Assembly had passed a
bill titled "An Act for vacating, breaking and annulling several
Extravagant Grants of land made by Colonel Benjamin Fletcher, late
Governor of the Province". Action was finally taken to settle the
matter by the authorities in England until 29 July, 1707, at which time
they upheld the colonial Assembly's act. The lands originally claimed by
Fletcher were, therefore available for Hunter to consider for the
Palatine settlement three years later. They included a tract on the
Mohawk River above Little Falls, A tract on the Schoharie River, a tract
on the east side of the Hudson River and one on that river's west side.
The tracts encompassed
by the "Extravagant Grants" were still claimed by the Mohawk Indians.
Governor Hunter began negotiations with the various Sachems who laid
claim to the lands. On 22 August, 1710 the Sachem who went by the name
of Hendrick made a gift of the tract on the Schoharie River to Governor
Hunter to be used for the settlement of the Palatines. At a conference
held at Fort Albany, Hendrick stated:
"We are told that the great queen
of Great Brittain had sent a considerable number of People with your
Excy to setle upon the land called Skohere, which was a great
surprise to us and we were mush Disatisfyd at the news, in Regard
the Land belongs to us.
Nevertheless since Your Excellcy
has been pleased to desire the said land for christian settlements,
we are willing and do now surrender…to the Queen…for Ever all that
tract of Land Called Skohere."
The Schoharie tract
was not really suited to the manufacture of naval stores or pitch and
tar because no pitch pine trees grew in its vicinity. The Schoharie land
was suitable, though, to the raising of hemp used for manufacturing
rope. Governor Hunter was not immediately impressed by the Schoharie
tract because its location above a sixty-foot waterfall and its distance
from New York City would make it difficult to defend against the French
and Indians. Instead, a tract of land nearer to New York City, about
ninety-two miles from it along the west side of the Hudson River (known
as the Evans Tract because it had been granted to Captasin Evans by
Governor Fletcher), was chosen by Governor Hunter for the Palatine
settlement. The Evans tract consisted of 6,300 acres. Near to it, on the
east side of the east side of the river lay a tract of 6,000 acres owned
by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Robert Livingston. Governor
Hunter entered into an agreement for the purchase of the second tract
with the option to remove the pitch pine trees growing on Livingston's
neighboring lands. A third tract of 800 acres was purchased from Thomas
Fullerton. The name given to the three tracts on which the Palatines
were to be settled was Livingston Manor.
In early-October 1710, the movement of the
Palatines to the Livingston Manor tract was begun. They had been encamped on
Nutten Island (later renamed Governor's Island) since their arrival
in July through August. Not all of the Palatines would move to Livingston
Manor. In 1713 some eighty-three persons, comprising twenty-three families,
remained in New York City.
The land was surveyed and
five town plats were laid out by the surveyors. Three towns were laid out on
the east side of the Hudson River and two on the west side. By June, 1711
seven towns had been established at Livingston Manor. Along the east side of
the river were Hunterstown, inhabited by one hundred and five families;
Queensbury, inhabited by one hundred and two families; Annsbury, inhabited
by seventy-six families; and Haysbury, inhabited by fifty-nine families.
Along the west side of the Hudson were Elizabeth Town, inhabited by
forty-two families; George Town, inhabited by forty families; and New Town,
inhabited by one hundred and three families.
The towns were platted to
consist of individual lots measuring approximately forty feet in frontage
and fifty feet in depth. The Palatine families were obliged to construct
their own houses and out-buildings. They did so in whatever fashion they
desired, but most constructed simple log cabins chinked with mud.
Robert Livingston provided
food and many of the necessities of life to the Palatine settlers during the
first two years of the settlement's existence. It might be argued that were
it not for his generosity, the settlement might not have survived.
Initially, the Livingston
Manor Settlement thrived and grew without discord except for the religious
squabbles that erupted, almost as soon as they arrived in the New World,
between the Lutheran and the Reformed congregations. To aggravate the
situation between the two faiths, the Reverend John Frederick Haeger had
been sent to the settlement by the London Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel to convert the Palatines to the Church of England. One would be
induced to believe that the religious difference between the three faiths
would induce a breakup of the settlement, but that would occur as a result
of other concerns.
Certain of the Palatines,
in fact between three and four hundred of them, formed a secret association
during the Spring of 1711 and plotted a rebellion. Their complaint was that
they felt that they were being cheated in the contractual arrangement, the
covenant, by which they had come to the New World. Back in England
prior to their departure, Governor Hunter had expressed to the Secretary of
State, Charles Spencer (aka the Earl of Sunderland) the need for a
contract between himself (as Governor of the Province of New York) and the
Palatines. The covenant was needed, according to Hunter to prevent the
Palatines "from falling off from the employment designed for them, or
being decoy'd into Proprietary Governments". The covenant stated that in
exchange for the great expenditure in monies advanced by the government to
provide for the transportation and settling of the Palatines in the New
World and providing them with employment (in the production of the naval
stores), the Palatines agreed to settle upon the lands provided for them by
the government and to continue to reside there (and that their heirs,
executors and administrators would continue to reside there). The covenant
contained a clause that stated that on no account or manner of pretense
would the Palatines attempt to leave the settlement or break the covenant
without the consent of the Governor. The Palatines were to agree to remain
in the employ, essentially as indentured servants, until they should
"have made good and repaid to her Majesty, her heirs and successors, out of
the produce of our labors in the manufactures we are employed in, the full
sum or sums of money in which we already are or shall become indebted to her
Majesty". In exchange, the governor would grant forty acres of land to
each person free from, taxes and quit-rents for seven years.
The rebellious group
claimed that they had incorrectly been told the stipulations of the covenant
prior to their embarkation. They claimed that the way it was read to them
was that 'seven years after they had been given forty acres, they were to
repay the Queen with naval stores of their production'. Rather than receive
their forty acres per person, they had received only a small lot. They felt
they had been cheated into servitude. One of their demands was that they
receive the land that had been promised to them by the Queen, which they
believed lay in the Schoharie Valley.
Governor Hunter replied in
force. He called for a military detachment from Fort Albany, who disarmed
the rebellious Palatines. They were forced to submit, and most of them asked
for pardon. On 12 June, 1711, Hunter established a court to oversee the
Palatines. The court had the authority to judge and punish the Palatines for
anything it deemed to be "Misdemeaners, Disobedience or wilfull
Transgressions". The imposition of a military state of rule over them
angered more of the Palatines than simply the original three or four hundred
dissenters.
The issuance of
"subsistence supplies" provided another source for agitation throughout the
settlement. Bread, beer and meat was supplied by Livingston and issued to
the people by Commissaries of Stores. The Palatines were not permitted to
provide certain of their own subsistence supplies, which including the
baking of bread. The issuance of the subsistence supplies was on a somewhat
irregular schedule, and the quantities issued were not uniform. The quality
of the food also varied. According to a letter sent by one of the
commissaries to Governor Hunter, "I
never saw salted meat so poor nor packed with so much salt as this Pork was.
In truth one eighth of it was salt."
Adding insult to injury,
John Bridger, the individual hired by Governor Hunter to instruct the
Palatines on the techniques of manufacturing the naval stores, gained
Hunter's permission in the latter part of 1710 to go to New England. In the
Spring of 1711, when Hunter requested that he return to the settlement in
order to continue training the Palatines on how to manufacture the tar and
pitch, Bridger refused. Hunter found a substitute instructor in the person
of Richard Sackett, a local famer who claimed to know the procedure. He
proceeded to direct the debarking of nearly 100,000 trees in the vicinity.
Sackett's method resulted in the production of 200 barrels of the tar, which
was far less than anticipated. An investigation into the reasons for the low
level of tar production revealed two major problems. First, Sackett's method
of girdling and debarking the trees was not efficient and resulted in loss
of the valuable resin into the ground. Secondly, the type of pines that grew
in the vicinity were white pine, which were not conducive to
producing the same quality of resin as the true pitch pine. The
English government was not interested in the reasons for the production
failures, no matter how valid; the Board of Trade was only interested in
results. Therefore the funding that Governor Hunter expected to receive was
directed elsewhere.
On 06 September, 1712,
Governor Hunter gave orders that the industry was to be halted and that the
Palatines would receive no more subsistence supplies. The Palatines were to
provide for their own needs by obtaining employment where they could, but
certain of the rules established the previous year would still remain in
effect. The Palatines would be permitted to find work only in the provinces
of New York and New Jersey. They would be required to register their new
place of residence and employment so that they could be called back to the
Livingston Manor settlement in the event that the naval stores industry
could be revived.
The cutting off of the
subsistence supplies so abruptly and just at the onset of winter caught many
of the Palatines off guard. They suffered miserably through the winter of
1712/1713. The Reverend Haeger sent a letter on 06 July, 1713 to the Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel in which he stated that the Palatines were
obliged to eat boiled grass and leaves.
Many of the Palatines left
the region. Risking imprisonment by the court, some fled southward to
Pennsylvania. Most of them, though moved closer to the vicinity of New York
City and Hackensack, New Jersey. On 31 October, 1712 Governor Hunter sent a
letter to the Board of Trade in which he stated that "some hundreds of
them took a resolution of possessing the land of Scoharee & are accordingly
march'd thither".
Governor Hunter was upset
by the fact that the Palatines had moved to the Schoharie Valley without
permission to do so, nor with the proper legal arrangements that should have
been undertaken. In the spring of 1713 Governor Hunter sent orders to the
Schoharie Valley which forbade the Palatines to settle there. But then, he
was not in a position to provide subsistence for them any longer and their
removal from Livingston Manor relieved him of such obligation.
The Palatines, ignorant of
the British claims to the Schoharie tract, entered into their own
negotiations with the local Mohawk Indians for the purchase of the Schoharie
Valley lands. The Indians, although they had already presented the tract as
a gift to the English Queen, were more than willing to be paid for it by the
Palatines.
During the autumn of 1712
approximately one hundred and fifty families moved to the vicinity of
Schenectady and Albany while the negotiations with the Indians progressed.
About fifty of those families moved directly to the Schoharie Valley and
erected crude shelters. During the following spring, the rest of the
families moved to Schoharie. A number of small villages were created by the
Palatines: Kniskerndorf, Central Bridge, Gerlachsdorf, Fuchsendorf,
Schmidsdorf, Brunnendorf, Hartmansdorf, Weiserdorf, and Oberweiserdorf.
During the first year that
the Schoharie Settlement was in existence, the people were very industrious,
building their houses and plowing the land to sow corn, wheat and other
grains. Because they had not taken many hand tools, farm implements or
furniture from their Livingston Manor homes for fear of being charged with
theft, they were without many of the necessary implements to either create a
new life or live comfortably in one once it was created. They obtained some
supplies from Schenectady, about forty miles away. Others, they received
from the friendly Mohawk Indians. In regard to food, the Indians recommended
various edible plants that were growing in the region, including potatoes.
And the congregation of the Dutch Church of New York sent them some supplies
in 1713. Despite the hardships, the Schoharie Settlement prospered and
survived.
As might be expected,
Governor Hunter grew increasingly upset with the situation. In 1715 he sent
an order to the Schoharie settlers that they would either have to purchase
or lease the land on which they had settled, or they would be forced to move
from it. The Palatines became beligerent in their attitude toward what they
felt was encroachment on their rights to the land promised to them by the
Queen of England. A sheriff sent by Hunter to serve a warrant for the arrest
of Johann Conrad Weiser, who was implicated in intending to travel to
England to present the people's grievances against Hunter to the English
government, was beaten and abused by the Palatine womenfolk before he could
effect his escape.
In 1717 Governor Hunter
organized a conference between himself and Johann Conrad Weiser and three
men from each of the Schoharie villages. He informed them that they would
need to come to an agreement with the true owners of the land, which were
seven residents of Albany (known as the Seven Partners) to whom he had sold
the Schoharie tract in 1714. If they did not, they would be forced to move.
In 1718 Johann Conrad
Weiser, William Scheff and Gerhart Walrath made a trip to London to argue
their case against Hunter, but before they got there they were robbed by
pirates. When they did arrive, without money to pay for the passage, the
three were locked up in the debtor's prison. In the meantime, Governor
Hunter, receiving word of the Palatines' intentions, traveled to London. He
arrived there before Weiser and the others could get out of prison and
presented his side of the story. The English authorities, of course believed
his claims that the Palatines had been treated with fairness, and that they
were simply being rebellious so as to cheat the proprietors. It was ruled
that the Palatines would have to move from the Schoharie Settlement. By the
time Weiser, Scheff and Walrath were freed from prison, the decision had
been made. Orders to have the Palatines removed from Schoharie were sent to
Governor Hunter's successor, William Burnet.
In 1721, Governor Burnet
offered the Palatines a number of choices, including one that they could
purchase lands from the Mohawks in the Mohawk Valley, some eighty miles from
Albany. Governor Burnet also raised the restrictions that had previously
been placed on the Palatines against moving into the other proprietary
colonies. As a result, about fifteen families left Schoharie in 1723 and
moved southward to settle in the Tulpehocken Valley of the Province of
Pennsylvania. Certain of the Schoharie Settlement residents conceded to the
assertions of the provincial government that the lands were legally the
property of the Seven Partners of Albany. They negotiated purchases or
leases from the Seven Partners and continued their residence at the
Schoharie Settlement.
The New Bern and Livingston Manor/Schoharie
settlements are the most memorable of the New World settlements of Palatine
German and Swiss emigrants. But smaller groups of Palatines had emigrated
from their homeland with the Province of Pennsylvania as their destination.
Because of their lack of
knowledge of the North American Continent, many of the early emigrants
believed that Pennsylvania and the Carolinas were part of the West India
Islands. Their papers requesting permission to leave their homeland stated
that their destination was the "island" of Pennsylvania.
The Reverend Henry Melchoir Muehlenberg traveled throughout the Province of Pennsylvania after
his emigration in 1742. He kept journals of his travels. In his journals,
Rev. Muehlenberg commented on the Palatine emigration and early settlements
in Pennsylvania. He noted four distinct phases of Palatine emigration:
"In the first period, namely from 1680
to 1708, some came by chance, among whom was one Henry Frey, whose wife
is said to be still living. He came about the year 1680. About the same
time some Low Germans from Cleve sailed across the ocean, whose
descendants are still to be found here, some of whom were baptized by
us, others still live as Quakers."
"In the second period, in the years
1708, 1709, 1710, to 1720, when the great exodus from the Palatinate to
England took place, and a large number of people were sent by Queen Anne
to the Province of New York, not a few of them came to Pennsylvania…."
"In the following third period, from
about the year 1720 to 1730, the number of High German Evangelical
Christians, from the German Empire, the Palatinate, Wurttemberg,
Darmstadt and other places increased largely. Also many from the State
of New York came over here, who had been sent there by Queen Anne…"
"At the end of this and the beginning
of the next period a still larger number of Germans came to this
country…"
The first period of the
emigration mentioned by Muehlenberg included the party led by the Reverend
Francis Daniel Pastorius, who settled in the vicinity of Philadelphia that
became known as Germantown. It also included a party known as the 'Mystics
of the Wissahickon' led by John Kelpius, and who settled in the vicinity of
'the Ridge', where the Wissahickon Creek empties into the Schuylkill River.
The second period was
defined by the emigration of Palatine and Swiss Mennonites who settled on
10,000 acres of land near the head of the Pequea Creek in the part of
Chester County that would become, in 1729, Lancaster County. The first of
these emigrants arrived at Philadelphia on 23 September, 1710. Seven years
later, In September, 1717, three ships arrived in Philadelphia carrying 363
German and Swiss emigrants.
In 1723 some fifteen
families moved from the Schoharie Settlement in the Province of New York to
settle in the Tulpehocken region of Pennsylvania. It is claimed that they
were invited to settle there by Lieutenant-Governor William Keith. By 1725
there were about thirty-three German families residing in the Tulpehocken
district. The increasing numbers of these settlers aggravated the relations
between the Provincial authorities and the local Indian tribes.
The continuing emigration
of large numbers of Germans from the Palatinate began to make the provincial
authorities uneasy. When Patrick Gordon took office as Pennsylvania's
lieutenant-governor in 1726, he took action to institute an Oath of
Allegiance & Subjection to naturalize the emigrants as subjects of Great
Britain. The action was enterred into the Minutes of the Provincial Council
on 14 September, 1727 and read as follows:
"The Governour acquainted the board,
that he had called them together at this time to inform them that there
is lately arrived from Holland, a Ship with four hundred Palatines, as
'tis said, and that he has information that they will be very soon
followed by a much greater Number, who design to settle in the nack
parts of this province; & as they transport themselves without any leave
obtained from the Crown of Great Britain, and settle themselves upon the
Proprietors untaken up Lands without any application to the Proprietor
or his Commissioners of property, or to the Government in general, it
would be highly necessary to concert proper measures for the peace and
security of the province, which may be endangered by such numbers of
Strangers daily poured in, who being ignorant of our Language & Laws, &
settling in a body together, make, as it were, a disctinct people from
his Majesties Subjects."
"The Board taking the same into their
Consideration, observe, that as these People pretended at first that
they fly hither on the Score of their religious Liberties, and come
under the Protection of His Majesty, its requisite that in the first
Place they should take the Oath of Allegiance, or some equivalent to it
to His Majesty, and promise Fidelity to the Proprietor & obedience to
our Established Constitution; And therefore, until some proper Remedy
can be had from Home, to prevent the Importation of such Numbers of
Strangers into this or others of His Majesties Colonies."
"Tis ORDERED, that the Masters of the
Vessells importing them shall be examined whether they have any Leave
granted to them by the Court of Britain for the Importation of these
Forreigners, and that a List shall be taken of the Names of all these
People, their several Occupations, and the Places from whence they come,
and shall be further examined touching their Intentions in coming
hither; And further, that a Writing be drawn up for them to sign
declaring their Allegiance & Subjection to the King of Great Britain &
Fidelity to the Proprietary of this Province, & that they will demean
themselves peacably towards all his Majesties Subjects, & strictly
observe, and confirm to the Laws of England and of this Government."
The emigrants aboard the ship, William
And Sarah, were the first of the Palatines to be so required to take the
Oath. Between the years 1727 and 1775, it has been estimated that
approximately 65,000 Palatine and Swiss emigrants arrived in the Port of
Philadelphia. That number, given in Volume I of the book Pennsylvania
German Pioneers, by R. B. Strassburger and edited by W. J. Hinke, was
based on 36,129 known passengers, of which 14,423 (males) signed their names
to the Oath.
The emigrants from Germany who arrived
during the period from 1727 to 1775 settled primarily in the southeastern
region of the province of Pennsylvania. But settlements were also made all
along the Atlantic seaboard from Nova Scotia to South Carolina. Just prior
to the American Revolutionary War period a migration route southward from
Pennsylvania through the Shenandoah Valley opened up. German families began
to travel that route and homestead in western Maryland, the Shenandoah
Valley of Virginia and in both of the Carolinas. From North and South
Carolina, the Germans moved westward into what would later become the states
of Kentucky, Missouri and Tennessee. Following the close of the Revolution,
a number of German families migrated northward into the Niagara region of
New York. The major thrust, though, was westward into the Ohio Valley. That
westward route traveled along the roads cut by Braddock and Forbes in the
1750s through the southcentral part of Pennsylvania, which included Bedford
County.
Although exact figures are not available,
certain estimates can be made concerning the German population in the 1700s
by looking at census records. From the 1790 United States Census we find
that German families made up approximately 32% of the total population of
Bedford County at that time. It has been estimated that of the Germans who
arrived in the New World, at least seventy percent settled in Pennsylvania.
The large numbers of German settlers in the province of Pennsylvania, as
compared to the other predominantly British colonies, made Pennsylvania seem
like a foreign nation.
The earliest Euro-American settlers in
Mother Bedford, so far as public records can confirm, were the four or five
men who made their living as traders to the local Indian population,
possibly as early as the 1730s. They tended to be single men, primarily of
Scot or English descent, who would establish a trading camp in a certain
location, operate their business there for a few years, and then move on.
The traders, of whom we have record, included Robert Ray and Garrett
Pendergrass, who set up their trading posts in the vicinity of where the
borough of Bedford would come to stand in present-day Bedford County; Frank
Stevens, who established his trading post in the vicinity of the village of
Frankstown in present-day Blair County; George Croghan, who settled along
the Aughwick Creek in the vicinity of the village of Shirleysburg in
present-day Huntingdon County; and John Hart, who established a trading post
in the vicinity of the village of Alexandria in present-day Huntingdon
County. Apart from folklore and legends of their adventures and their names
in certain features of the local landscape, those early traders left little
else. It would be up to the families that followed them, who homesteaded on
the land and tamed it from wilderness to cultivated farmland, to establish
civilization in the frontier that was Bedford County. As noted in the
section titled The Coming Of The Euro-Americans, settlements in the
region that became Bedford County in 1771 had been established as early as
1710. Those first pioneer settlers were not German, though.
The settlement of German families in
Bedford County began prior to the American Revolutionary War, and increased
dramatically as a result of the post-Revolutionary War migration via the old
Forbes Road.
Although it can't be given as a steadfast
rule, the Ulster~Scots and Germans, in general, tended not to settle in the
same valleys. It has been noted by many historians that the Germans seemed
to seek out limestone based land which was the best suited for cultivation.
The Ulster~Scots, on the other hand, were used to farming on less desirable
soil; therefore they might not have been as choosy as the Germans. The
Ulster~Scots also tended to move about more frequently than the sedentary
Germans, the German settlements, therefore, tended to become more well known
as established communities. But then, all that is a generalized viewpoint,
and did not hold true in all cases.
In present-day Bedford County, there were
large numbers of German settlers in the Dutch Corner region and throughout
the Morrisons Cove, which extended from Evitts Mountain northward along the
west side of Tussey Mountain into present-day Blair County. The early
settlers of Cumberland Valley Township included a number of German descent.
In present-day Blair County, the Morrison
Cove was not the only region settled heavily by the Germans. The Blue Knob
mountain and the many valleys stretching down out of the mountain provided
prime homesteading lands for German farmers. The Indian Path Valley that
extends from the Borough of Bedford northward to the base of the Blue Knob
Mountain, along the west side of Dunnings Mountain was settled mostly by
German settlers.
Settlers in the region originally formed as
Quemahoning Township, which stretched from the Stony Creek Glades northward
into present-day Cambria County, were predominantly German.
Practically no German families homesteaded
in the southeastern part of Bedford County which was erected into Fulton
County in 1850. From the proliferation of Irish and Scot place names found
in Fulton County (e.g. Belfast, Ayr, Dublin, McConnellsburg, etc) it
can be seen that the region was settled predominantly by Ulster-Scots and
Irish.
Apart from the Woodcock Valley, there were
few areas of German settlement in present-day Huntingdon County.
The region lying west of the Allegheny
Mountain Range, which is present-day Somerset County, and which included the
area in which the Borough of Somerset was laid out, was originally laid out
as Brothers Valley Township within Bedford County. The entire region was
heavily settled by Germans who belonged to the German Baptist, or Brethren,
congregation. The town of Berlin was entirely composed of German families,
when it was founded in the 1780s. The valley lying between the Chestnut and
Laurel Ridges, known as the Turkey-Foot Valley, is believed to have been the
part of present-day Somerset County in which the earliest settlements were
made, many of them being German.
Into the 1790s a number of the residents
continued to be refered to as "Duchman" if their given names were not known.
The name of Duchman Butterbaugh was one of those that continued to appear on
the tax assessment returns.
According to Solon J. Buck and Elizabeth
Hawthorn Buck in their book, The Planting Of Civilization In Western
Pennsylvania, in 1790, "Of the 12,955 white families in the five
western counties of Allegheny, Washington, Fayette, Westmoreland, and
Bedford in 1790, it appears that about…twelve (per cent were) of German
(origin)…" Of the total population within the individual counties, they
noted that, "Of Germans there were
thirty-two per cent in Bedford…"
Despite the large percentage of Germans
residing in Bedford County (at least one third of the population in 1790),
they were spread out. Except, as noted above, in present-day Somerset County
and other particular regions, the German settlers were scattered among the
other ethnic groups in Bedford County. They therefore did not create
"isolated" ethnic communities such as those found in the eastern counties,
the so-called "Pennsylvania" Dutch (i.e. Deutsch, or German). It
should be noted, though, that the intermingling of the German settlers with
certain of those other ethnic types (especially the Ulster Scots and Irish)
resulted in an unique strain that was almost as exclusive as the
Pennsylvania Dutch of the eastern counties.
The various ethnic groups brought to
Bedford County their own particular customs and ways of life, and the German
influence was strong. The Germans celebrated many more holidays, such as
Christmas, and many more social events, such as weddings, than their British
neighbors. Unfettered by decades of Puritan austerity, as their British
neighbors were, the Germans exhibited a love of social activities. Any event
could easily become a community party, complete with the dancing of jigs and
reels and the drinking of whiskey or hard cider, and most of them did. The
making of apple-butter and the butchering of pigs in the fall called for a
community get-together. House-raisings were another community-shared event.
Families would get together to husk corn, to full cloth or to quilt or hap
bed coverings. This is not to say that the other ethnic groups did not help
each other ~ they simply did not tend to make such events into parties
complete with music and dancing and heavy drinking.
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